Sociological Theory
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
UMD

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

THE ONLY REAL APPROACH IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE 1940S AND 1950S

DECLINE COMES IN 1960S AND 1970S, PRONOUNCED DEAD WHEN PARSONS DIES

PARSONS WROTE HIS GREATEST WORK DURING THIS PERIOD AND SENT MANY GRADUATE STUDENTS INTO THE ACADEMIC WORK PLACE,

E.G. KINGSLEY DAVIS AND WILBERT MOORE WROTE ON STRATIFICATION IN 1945; ROBERT MERTON ON DYSFUNCTION AND MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS IN 1949

DAVIS AND MOORE STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF STRATIFICATION
  1. STRATIFICATION IS UNIVERSAL AND NECESSARY

  2. NO SOCIETY IS UNSTRATIFIED

  3. STRATIFICATION IS A FUNCTIONAL NECESSITY

  4. STRATIFICATION DOES NOT REFER TO PEOPLE, BUT, TO A SYSTEM OF POSITIONS

    WE ATTACH PRESTIGE TO DIFFERENT POSITIONS

  5. THE FOCUS BECOMES ON HOW PEOPLE GET INTO "PROPER" POSITIONS. HOW DOES SOCIETY INSTILL IN INDIVIDUALS THE DESIRE TO FILL A POSITION? ONCE IN POSITIONS, HOW DO YOU GET FOLKS TO FULFILL THE REQUIREMENTS?

  6. WE RANK POSITIONS ACCORDING TO:

    • SOME ARE MORE PLEASANT THAN OTHERS

    • SOME ARE MORE IMPORTANT TO SURVIVAL OF SOCIETY THAN OTHERS

    • SOME REQUIRE DIFFERENT ABILITIES AND TALENTS

  7. ASSUME THAT THE POSITIONS AT THE TOP ARE LESS PLEASANT, MORE IMPORTANT, AND MORE DIFFICULT

  8. IF WE ATTACH SIGNIFICANT REWARDS TO TOP POSITIONS THOSE WITH THE TALENT AND DRIVE WILL DEFER GRATIFICATION AND STRIVE FOR THE TOP POSITIONS

    THE CREAM RISES TO THE TOP!!

TALCOTT PARSONS

BORN 1902; DIED MAY 1979

ATTENDED AMHERST COLLEGE;

LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS WHERE HE STUDIED WITH BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI THUS LEARNING DURKHEIM BEFORE HIS WRITING APPEARED IN ENGLISH;

WENT TO HEIDELBERG UNIVERSITY CONCENTRATED ON ECONOMICS AND THE WORK OF MAX WEBER; TRANSLATED THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM INTO ENGLISH

CAME BACK TO U.S. TEACHING ECONOMICS AT AMHERST AND SOCIOLOGY & ECONOMICS AT HARVARD

HE WAS MOST HEAVILY INFLUENCE AT THIS TIME IN HIS CAREER BY PARETO AND WEBER; TRIED TO SYNTHESIZE ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY

IN 1930 HARVARD CREATED A DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY LOOKED FOR THE BEST TO BRING IN AS CHAIR - PITIRM SOROKIN

SHORTLY THERE AFTER, PARSONS EMERGED AS THE BEST SOCIOLOGIST AT HARVARD

PARSONS CONVINCED HARVARD TO ELIMINATE THE SOCIOLOGY DEPARTMENT AND CREATE A NEW DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL RELATIONS; HE WAS MADE CHAIR (SOROKIN WAS LEFT TO DO RESEARCH) 1946

AT THIS TIME THE POWER OF THE CHICAGO SCHOOL (SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION) WAS UNDERMINED AND FUNCTIONALISM TOOK OVER
AS AN ASIDE - AJS WAS REPLACED WITH THE ASR FOR THE ASA


I. IN 1937 THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL ACTION WAS PUBLISHED

"WHO NOW READS SPENCER?.....SPENCER IS DEAD. BUT WHO KILLED HIM AND HOW? THIS IS THE PROBLEM." (PG.3)

NORMS, VALUES, & OTHER "IDEAS"
-------MEANS 1-------->

-------MEANS 2-------->
ACTOR -------MEANS 3--------> GOALS
-------MEANS 4-------->

-------MEANS N-------->

SITUATIONAL CONDITIONS
THE NEXT QUESTION TO BE ANSWERED IS, HOW ARE THESE UNIT ACTS CONNECTED?

PARSONS THEORY OF SOCIETY

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE MUCH MORE COMPLEX THAN MOST RESEARCHERS MAKE OUT; THE CLASSIC THEORISTS WERE LOOKING FOR ONE GREAT CAUSE; BUT THINGS ARE EXTREMELY INTERRELATED

THE CAUSE OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE MUST BE FOUND IN THEIR RELATIONS TO OTHER STRUCTURES, NOT SMALLER UNIT ACTS (NOT INDUCTIVE) (THINK OF DURKHEIM'S NOTION OF SOCIAL FACTS)

HIS MAJOR CONCERN IS WITH INTEGRATION; HIS VIEW OF SOCIETY IS ONE OF EQUILIBRIUM

GIVEN THIS VIEW, WHAT HOLDS SOCIETY TOGETHER? WHAT BRINGS IT BACK TOGETHER AFTER DISASTER? HE CALLS THIS "THE HOBBESIAN PROBLEM OF ORDER."

THE SOLUTION RESTS IN DURKHEIM'S COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE, THAT FEELING OF SOLIDARITY, PARSONS CALLS THIS THE VALUE SYSTEM

HOW DO YOU EXPLAIN THE COERCIVE POWER OF THE VALUE SYSTEM? (AGAIN THINK OF DURKHEIM'S CONCERN) HE FINDS THE ANSWER NOT IN DURKHEIM BUT IN FREUD; THE COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE IS FOUND IN INDIVIDUAL CONSCIENCE (SUPER EGO) THROUGH SOCIALIZATION OF PARENTS COMMANDS AND PUNISHMENTS WE LEARN THE AUTHORITY OF THE VALUE SYSTEM

HERE PARSONS CONNECTS PSYCHOLOGY THROUGH THE PERSONALITY SYSTEM TO THE SOCIAL SYSTEM

SO, HOW IS SOCIAL ORDER POSSIBLE?

HERE THE INFLUENCE OF A BIOLOGIST AT HARVARD (AND THE WRITINGS OF COMTE) BROUGHT THE ORGANIC ANALOGY TO PARSONS: A WHOLE MADE UP OF PARTS, SYSTEMS MADE UP OF SYSTEMS

  1. CULTURAL SYSTEM; COGNITIVE, VALUATIVE, SYMBOLIC ASPECTS OF ACTION (NORMS AND VALUES)

  2. SOCIAL SYSTEM; PATTERNS AND UNITS OF INTERACTION (STATUS - ROLE COMPLEX)

  3. PERSONALITY SYSTEM; CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INDIVIDUAL THAT AFFECTS FUNCTIONING IN THE SOCIAL WORLD (NEED - DISPOSITION; DRIVES THAT ARE SOCIALLY CREATED)

  4. BEHAVIORAL SYSTEM; BIOLOGICAL NEEDS (CONDITIONED BY LEARNING)

SOCIAL ORDER IS POSSIBLE BECAUSE PEOPLE WILL COMPLY WITH EXPECTATIONS WITHOUT EXPERIENCING CONFLICT.

SOCIAL RULES "POSSESS THEIR HARMONIOUS CHARACTER BY VIRTUE OF THEIR DERIVATION...FROM COMMON VALUE ORIENTATIONS WHICH ARE THE SAME FOR ALL."

INTEGRATION BETWEEN NEEDS & CULTURALLY DERIVED RULES OF SYSTEM

INTERNALIZED VALUES PROVIDE A PERSONAL MOTIVATION FOR COMPLYING WITH LEGITIMATE ROLE EXPECTATIONS.

PARSONS IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS THAT ALL ORGANIZATIONS OR SOCIAL SYSTEMS MUST SOLVE FOR SURVIVAL PURPOSES

  1. PROBLEMS OF COMMITMENT TO VALUES

  2. SYSTEM INTEGRATION

  3. GOAL ACHIEVEMENT

  4. ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT

AGIL FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES

FUNCTION IS DEFINED AS "A COMPLEX OF ACTIVITIES DIRECTED TOWARDS MEETING A NEED OR NEEDS OF THE SYSTEM."

A SYSTEM MUST PERFORM THESE FOUR FUNCTIONS TO SURVIVE (SMALL OR LARGE SYSTEM) THIS MAKES THEM IMPERATIVE

I. ADAPTATION

MUST CONTEND WITH EXTERNAL SITUATIONS, MUST ADAPT TO ENVIRONMENT AND ADAPT ENVIRONMENT TO ITS NEEDS. GETTING RESOURCES FROM ENVIRONMENT AND DISTRIBUTING IN THE SYSTEM

ECONOMIC INSTITUTION

II. GOAL ATTAINMENT

MUST DEFINE AND ACHIEVE PRIMARY GOALS. TO PRIORITIZE AND ATTAIN GOALS

POLITICAL INSTITUTION

III. INTEGRATION

MUST REGULATE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF COMPONENT PARTS. SOCIAL COHESION AND CONTROL; INTEGRATING MEMBERS INTO HARMONIOUS RELATIONS
THIS IS ON A MANIFEST LEVEL

LEGAL INSTITUTION

IV. LATENT PATTERN MAINTENANCE-TENSION MANAGEMENT "A SYSTEM MUST FURNISH, MAINTAIN, AND RENEW BOTH THE MOTIVATION OF INDIVIDUALS AND THE CULTURAL PATTERNS THAT CREATE AND SUSTAIN THE MOTIVATION." (RITZER:208) ACTORS MUST PLAY PART, MAINTAIN PATTERN OF VALUES IN THE SYSTEM & INTERNAL TENSION MANAGEMENT SO MEMBERS TRANSMIT VALUES MAINTAINING BASIC CULTURAL PATTERNS EDUCATION, RELIGION & FAMILY INSTITUTIONS

PARSONS CLASSIFIES VALUES INTO WHAT HE REFERS TO AS PATTERN VARIABLES

THAT IS, FUNDAMENTAL AND BASIC CHOICES PEOPLE NEED TO MAKE WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER OR INTERACT WITH OTHER PEOPLE (EVEN IF THEY ENCOUNTER THOSE PEOPLE AS STATUS-ROLES)

YOU CAN JUDGE OTHERS ON WHAT THEY DO (ACHIEVEMENT) OR WHAT THEY ARE (ASCRIBED)

TREAT PEOPLE ACCORDING TO GENERAL RULES LIKE LAW (UNIVERSALISM) OR PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS LIKE FRIENDSHIP (PARTICULARISM)

(DILEMMAS OF ORIENTATION WHICH MUST BE SOLVED BEFORE ACTION CAN TAKE PLACE)

PATTERN VARIABLES
EXPRESSIVE
(GEMEINSCHAFT) 		INSTRUMENTAL
(GESELLSCHAFT)
ORIENTATION TOWARDS OTHERS
amount of emotion to be shown in an interaction
ASCRIPTION ACHIEVEMENT
RANGE OF DEMANDS ON RELATIONSHIP
how far reaching are the obligations in an interaction situation
DIFFUSENESS SPECIFICITY
CAN ACTOR EXPECT EMOTIONAL GRATIFICATION
how much emotion is appropriate
RELATIONSHIP (Affectivity) (Affective) NEUTRALITY
ACTING ON PARTICULAR RELATIONSHIP OR GENERAL NORM
should the same standard be used to evaluate all actors in interaction situations
PARTICULARISM UNIVERSALISM
COLLECTIVE OBLIGATION OR PRIVATE INTEREST
is action oriented toward individual or group action
COLLECTIVITY SELF


SOCIAL CHANGE

PERHAPS THE MOST CRITICIZED ASPECT OF PARSONS THEORY, AND FUNCTIONALISM GENERALLY

SOCIAL SYSTEMS CHANGE BY EITHER "DIFFERENTIATION" ; INCREASE IN DIVISION OF LABOR LEADING TO STRUCTURES MORE SPECIALIZED IN THEIR FUNCTIONS, OR "DE-DIFFERENTIATION," OR A DECREASE IN THE DIVISION OF LABOR RESULTING IN STRUCTURES TAKING ON MORE FUNCTIONS

CAN PLACE SOCIETIES (OR ANY SYSTEM) ON A CONTINUUM FROM UNDIFFERENTIATED TO HIGHLY DIFFERENTIATED

AS SOCIETIES BECOME MORE COMPLEX - DIFFERENTIATED, CULTURE BECOMES "UPGRADED" THAT IS, MORE ABSTRACT, AND MORE GENERALIZED (THINK OF PATTERN VARIABLES)

DIFFERENTIATION CREATES PROBLEMS OF INTEGRATION (THINK ABOUT AGIL)

RELY MORE ON POLITICAL SYSTEM (GOAL ATTAINMENT) TO SOLVE PROBLEMS E.G. NATIONAL HEALTH CARE; DISASTER RELIEF, ETC.

WHAT CAUSES CHANGE?

SCIENCE (REMEMBER COMTE); ECONOMIC GROWTH, TECHNOLOGICAL INVENTIONS, ALL HAVE RAMIFICATIONS THROUGHOUT SYSTEM

IMPERFECT INTEGRATION WILL ALSO BRING CHANGE

THE BIG CHANGES IN HISTORY ARE BROUGHT ON BY CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS -
VALUE SYSTEM CHANGES ARE THE PRIME MOVERS IN HISTORY

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Copyright: © 2001, John Hamlin
Last Modified: Wednesday, 01-Nov-2006 07:00:09 CST
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